Flower-like nano- to micro-structured 3D functional materials: From conception to fabrication, application, and prospection

Abstract

Nanoflowers are an emerging class of flower-shaped nanoparticles that have attracted significant research interest because of their simple synthesis, excellent stability, and enhanced performance across a wide range of applications. This critical review provides a comprehensive overview of the advantages, limitations, synthesis strategies, classifications, and applications of nanoflowers from a future-oriented perspective, drawing on more than 200 research articles published since 2006. Owing to their unique three-dimensional morphology and high surface area, nanoflowers have demonstrated remarkable potential in targeted drug delivery, cell imaging, biosensing, protein functionalization, enhanced enzyme activity, improved stability, and catalytic processes. Their applications have further expanded to include enzyme purification, removal of dyes and heavy metals from wastewater, water splitting, fuel conversion, and energy storage technologies. Recent studies have also highlighted the use of three-dimensional nanoflower architectures to enhance surface sensitivity in Raman spectroscopy, enabling improved analytical performance. The exceptional surface-to-volume ratio and superior adsorption capacity provided by their petal-like structures make nanoflowers highly promising materials for next-generation technological applications. Furthermore, this review aims to provide valuable insights into the rational design and synthesis of advanced nanoflower-based photocatalysts, thereby supporting the development of sustainable technologies and inspiring future research in this rapidly evolving field.